IU Indianapolis ScholarWorks :: Browsing by Author "Chu, Tien-Min G."

Browsing by Author "Chu, Tien-Min G."

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Accuracy of digital duplication scanning methods for complete dentures
(Wiley, 2023) Alehaideb, Abdullah; Lin, Wei-Shao; Levon, John A.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Yang, Chao-Chieh; Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry
Purpose To compare the accuracy of four digital scanning methods in duplicating a complete denture. Material and Methods Four scanning methods were used: cone beam computed tomography (CBCT), Straumann desktop scanner (DS), Trios intraoral scanner (TIO), and Virtuo Vivo intraoral scanner (VVIO). Each method was used to duplicate all the surfaces of a printed complete denture. The denture was scanned 10 times in each group. The trueness (in root mean square, RMS) and precision (in standard deviation, SD) were calculated by comparing the combined dentition, denture extension, and intaglio surfaces with the reference file. One-way analysis of variance and F-tests were used to test statistical differences (α = 0.05). Results For the scanning accuracy of the whole denture, CBCT showed the highest RMS (0.249 ± 0.020 mm) and lowest trueness than DS (0.124 ± 0.014 mm p < 0.001), TIO (0.131 ± 0.006 mm p < 0.001), and VVIO (0.227 ± 0.020 mm p = 0.017), while DS and TIO showed smaller RMS than VVIO (p < 0.001). For the trueness of dentition, denture extension, and intaglio surfaces, CBCT also showed the highest mean RMS and lowest trueness among all groups (p < 0.001). DS and TIO had smaller mean RMS and higher trueness among all groups in all surfaces (p < 0.001, except VVIO in intaglio surface, p > 0.05). TIO had significantly lower within-group variability of RMS and highest precision compared to DS (p = 0.013), CBCT (p = 0.001), and VVIO (p < 0.001) in the combined surface. For dentition and denture extension surfaces, TIO showed similar within-group variability of RMS with the DS group (p > 0.05) and lower than CBCT and VVIO (p < 0.001). Conclusion The 7 Series desktop scanner and Trios 4 intraoral scanner can duplicate dentures in higher trueness than CBCT and the Virtuo Vivo intraoral scanner. The Trios 4 intraoral scanner was more precise in the combined surfaces than other scanning methods, while the 7 Series desktop scanner and Trios 4 intraoral scanner were more precise in the denture extension surface.
Baseline Biomechanical Properties of Epithelia prior to Tissue Expansion in Dogs
(Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2018-05-14) Bowling, Jay; Davidson, Darrell D.; Tholpady, Sunil S.; Park, Kinam; Eckert, George J.; Katona, Terrence; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Barco, Clark T.; Periodontology, School of Dentistry
Background: Soft-tissue deficiencies pose a challenge in a variety of disease processes when the end result is exposure of underlying tissue. Although multiple surgical techniques exist, the transposition of tissue from one location to another can cause donor-site morbidity, long incisions prone to dehiscence, and poor patient outcomes as a result. Use of tissue expansion prior to grafting procedures has been shown to have success in increasing available soft tissue to aid in repairing wounds. However, the current tissue expanders have biomechanical limits to the extent and rate of expansion that usually exceeds the tissue capacity, leading to incisional dehiscence or expander extrusion. Understanding the baseline biomechanical properties of the tissue to be expanded would provide useful information regarding surgical protocol employed for a given anatomical location. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test and compare the baseline (preexpansion) biomechanical properties of different common expansion sites in dogs. Methods: Four samples measuring approximately 20 × 15 × 1 mm were harvested from 8 dogs. The samples were collected from the hard palate, alveolar mucosa, scalp, and chest of the animal and analyzed for stress, strain, maximum tangential stiffness, maximum tangential modulus, and tensile strength using a Texture Technologies TA.XT texture analyzer with corresponding biomechanical measurement software. Samples were compared as to their baseline biomechanical properties prior to any soft-tissue expansion. Histological sections of the samples were analyzed using hematoxylin eosin in an attempt to correlate the histological description to the biomechanical properties seen during testing. Summary statistics (mean, standard deviation, standard error, range) are reported for stress, strain, maximum tangential stiffness, maximum tangential modulus, and tensile strength and for the histological parameters by intraoral site. Analysis of variance was used to compare the biomechanical and histological parameters among the 4 locations while accounting for multiple measurements from each dog. Results: The scalp had significantly higher maximum stress (σmax) than chest, mucosa, and palate (P < 0.0001), with no differences among the other 3 locations (P > 0.63). Scalp site also had significantly higher maximum tangential modulus (ε) than chest, mucosa, and palate (P < 0.006), with no differences among the other 3 locations (P > 0.17). The locations did not have significantly different maximum tangential stiffness (k; P = 0.72). Histologically, 2 separate patterns of collagen disruption were evident. Conclusion: Although different results were obtained than theorized, this study showed that the scalp had the greatest resiliency to expand prior to tearing, and the highest tangential modulus, with all sites having statistically similar modulus of elasticity. Based on this study, the scalp could be expanded more aggressively compared with the other sites.
Beam profile characterization of light-emitting-diode curing units and its effect on polymerization of a resin-matrix composite
(2017) AlZain, Afnan Omar; Platt, Jeffrey A.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Bottino, Marco C.; Hara, Anderson T.; Goodpaster, John V.; Roulet, Jean-Francois
The general aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the localized irradiance beam profiles from multiple light-emitting-diode (LED) light-curing units (LCUs) on the polymerization pattern within a resin-matrix composite (RMC). Irradiance beam profiles were generated from one quartz-tungsten-halogen and various single and multiple emission peak LED LCUs using a camera-based beam profiler system combined with LCU power measurements obtained using an integrating sphere/spectrometer assembly. The influence of distance on irradiance, radiant exposure (RE) and degree of conversion (DC) on the top and bottom surfaces of a RMC increment, using various LCUs, at two clinically relevant distances was investigated. Molar absorptivity of the photoinitiators present in the nano-hybrid RMC (Tetric EvoCeram bleaching shade-XL) assessed was using UV-spectrophotometry. The correlation among irradiance, RE and DC was explored. A mapping approach was used to investigate DC, microhardness and cross-link density (CLD) within 5×5×2 mm specimens at various depths; top, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, 1.1, 1.3,1.5 mm and bottom. The localized irradiance correlation with its corresponding DC, microhardness and CLD was explored, and localized DC correlation with microhardness was assessed. The DC was measured using micro-Raman spectroscopy, and CLD was assessed by an ethanol-softening method (%KHN reduction) using an automated microhardness tester. Molar absorptivity of diphenyl (2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphine oxide was 20-fold higher than camphorquinone. Non-uniform LCU beam profiles caused localized polymerization discrepancies that were significant at specific depths and points within the specimens with respect to DC, microhardness and CLD, which did not follow a specific pattern regardless of the LCU or curing distance assessed. A moderate correlation was displayed among irradiance, RE and DC. The localized irradiance from the LCUs was weakly correlated with the corresponding DC, microhardness and CLD on the top surface of a RMC at both curing distances. The localized microhardness was moderately correlated with DC. In conclusion, polymerization within the RMC investigated was non-uniform and did not reflect the LCU irradiance pattern at the area assessed. Also, a mapping approach within the specimens provided a detailed polymerization pattern assessment occurring within a RMC increment. Therefore, the LCUs explored may potentially increase the risk of RMC fracture.
Cohousing Male Mice with and without Segmental Bone Defects
(American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 2018-04) Rytlewski, Jeffrey D.; Childress, Paul J.; Scofield, David C.; Khan, Faisal; Alvarez, Marta B.; Tucker, Aamir T.; Harris, Jonathan S.; Peveler, Jessica L.; Hickman, Debra L.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Kacena, Melissa A.; Biomedical Sciences and Comprehensive Care, School of Dentistry
Spaceflight results in bone loss like that associated with osteoporosis or decreased weight-bearing (for example, high-energy trauma such as explosive injuries and automobile accidents). Thus, the unique spaceflight laboratory on the International Space Station presents the opportunity to test bone healing agents during weightlessness. We are collaborating with NASA and the US Army to study bone healing in spaceflight. Given the unique constraints of spaceflight, study design optimization was required. Male mice were selected primarily because their femur is larger than females’, allowing for more reproducible surgical outcomes. However, concern was raised regarding male mouse aggression. In addition, the original spaceflight study design included cohousing nonoperated control mice with mice that had undergone surgery to create a segmental bone defect. This strategy prompted the concern that nonoperated mice would exhibit aggressive behavior toward vulnerable operated mice. We hypothesized that operated and nonoperated male mice could be cohoused successfully when they were cagemates since birth and underwent identical anesthetic, analgesic, preoperative, and postoperative conditions. Using quantitative behavioral scoring, body weight, and organ weight analyses (Student t test and ANOVA), we found that nonoperated and operated C57BL/6 male mice could successfully be housed together. The male mice did not exhibit aggressive behavior toward cagemates, whether operated or nonoperated, and the mice did not show evidence of stress, as indicated by veterinary assessment, or change in body or proportional organ weights. These findings allowed our mission to proceed (launched February 2017) and may inform future surgical study designs, potentially increasing housing flexibility.
Development of a step-down method for altering male C57BL/6 mouse housing density and hierarchical structure: Preparations for spaceflight studies
(Elsevier, 2018-05) Scofield, David C.; Rytlewski, Jeffrey D.; Childress, Paul; Shah, Kishan; Tucker, Aamir; Khan, Faisal; Peveler, Jessica; Li, Ding; McKinley, Todd O.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Hickman, Debra L.; Kacena, Melissa A.; Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine
This study was initiated as a component of a larger undertaking designed to study bone healing in microgravity aboard the International Space Station (ISS). Spaceflight experimentation introduces multiple challenges not seen in ground studies, especially with regard to physical space, limited resources, and inability to easily reproduce results. Together, these can lead to diminished statistical power and increased risk of failure. It is because of the limited space, and need for improved statistical power by increasing sample size over historical numbers, NASA studies involving mice require housing mice at densities higher than recommended in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (National Research Council, 2011). All previous NASA missions in which mice were co-housed, involved female mice; however, in our spaceflight studies examining bone healing, male mice are required for optimal experimentation. Additionally, the logistics associated with spaceflight hardware and our study design necessitated variation of density and cohort make up during the experiment. This required the development of a new method to successfully co-house male mice while varying mouse density and hierarchical structure. For this experiment, male mice in an experimental housing schematic of variable density (Spaceflight Correlate) analogous to previously established NASA spaceflight studies was compared to a standard ground based housing schematic (Normal Density Controls) throughout the experimental timeline. We hypothesized that mice in the Spaceflight Correlate group would show no significant difference in activity, aggression, or stress when compared to Normal Density Controls. Activity and aggression were assessed using a novel activity scoring system (based on prior literature, validated in-house) and stress was assessed via body weights, organ weights, and veterinary assessment. No significant differences were detected between the Spaceflight Correlate group and the Normal Density Controls in activity, aggression, body weight, or organ weight, which was confirmed by veterinary assessments. Completion of this study allowed for clearance by NASA of our bone healing experiments aboard the ISS, and our experiment was successfully launched February 19, 2017 on SpaceX CRS-10.
The Effect of Polymerization Methods and Fiber Types on the Mechanical Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced Resin-Based Composites
(Wiley, 2017-04) Huang, Nan-Chieh; Bottino, Marco C.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Biomedical and Applied Sciences, School of Dentistry
Purpose Glass fibers were introduced to increase the fracture resistance of resin-based composites restorations; however, the poor polymerization between fibers and resin-based composite were sometimes noted and can cause debonding and failure. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of different polymerization methods as well as fiber types on the mechanical behavior of fiber-reinforced resin-based composites. Materials and Methods Seventy-five specimens were fabricated and divided into one control group and four experimental groups (n = 15), according to the type of glass fiber (strip or mesh) and polymerization methods (one- or two-step). A 0.2-mm-thick fiber layer was fabricated with different polymerization methods, on top of which a 1.8 mm resin-based composite layer was added to make a bar-shape specimen, followed by a final polymerization. Specimens were tested for flexural strength and flexural modulus. The failure modes of specimens were observed by scanning electron microscopy. Results The fiber types showed significant effect on the flexural strength of test specimens (F = 469.48, p < 0.05), but the polymerization methods had no significant effect (F = 0.05, p = 0.82). The interaction between these two variables was not significant (F = 1.73, p = 0.19). In addition, both fiber type (F = 9.71, p < 0.05) and polymerization method (F = 12.17, p < 0.05) affected the flexural modulus of test specimens; however, the interaction between these two variables was not significant (F = 0.40, p = 0.53). Conclusions The strip fibers showed better mechanical behavior than mesh fibers and were suggested for resin-based composites restorations reinforcement; however, different polymerization methods did not have a significant effect on the strength and failure mode of fiber-reinforced resin-based composites.
The effects of additive manufacturing technologies and finish line designs on the trueness and dimensional stability of 3D-printed dies
(Wiley, 2023) Lai, Yi-Cheng; Yang, Chao-Chieh; Levon, John A.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Morton, Dean; Lin, Wei-Shao; Prosthodontics, School of Dentistry
Purpose To evaluate the effects of 5 manufacturing technologies and 2 finish line designs on the trueness and dimensional stability of 3D-printed definitive dies at finish line regions under different storage conditions and time. Material and methods Preparation of light chamfer and round shoulder finish lines were adopted individually on two mandibular first molar typodont teeth and digitalized as standard tessellation language (STL) files. A total of 240 samples (192 AM definitive dies and 48 definitive conventional stone dies) in 20 groups (n = 12) were manufactured based on 2 finishing line designs (chamfer and shoulder), 5 manufacturing technologies (4 additively manufactured technologies and conventional stone die), and 2 storage conditions (light exposure and dark). The 4 additively manufactured (AM) technologies include a DLP 3D-printer, an economic LED 3D-printer, a CLIP 3D-printer, and an SLA 3D-printer. All the study samples were distributed into two storage conditions. Subsequently, samples were digitalized to STL files at 3 different time points (within 36 hours, 1-month, and 3-months). A surface matching software was used to superimpose the sample STL files onto the corresponding original STL files with the best-fit alignment function. The trueness of each printed and stone definitive dies and their dimensional stabilities were measured by the root mean square (RMS, in mm). A linear mixed-effects model was used to test the effects of the finish line design, manufacturing technology, storage condition, and storage time on RMS values (α = 0.05). Results While finish line designs had no significant effects [F(1, 220) = 0.85, p < 0.358], the manufacturing technologies [F(3, 220) = 33.02, p < 0.001], storage condition [F(1, 220) = 4.11, p = 0.044], and storage time F(2, 440) = 10.37, p < 0.001] affected the trueness and dimensional stability of 3D-printed dies at finish line regions. No significant interactions were found among the 4 factors. For the manufacturing technologies, Type IV stone groups and LCD 3D-printer groups had significantly higher RMS values than the other 3 printers (p < 0.001) with no significant differences between Type IV stone and LCD 3D-printer groups (p = 0.577). DLP 3D-printer groups had higher RMS values than both SLA 3D-printer groups and CLIP 3D-printer groups (p < 0.001). There were no significant differences between SLA 3D-printer groups and CLIP 3D-printer groups, p = 0.671. For the effects of storage conditions, RMS values were significantly higher in the groups stored with the direct light exposure than the ones stored in the dark, p = 0.044. In terms of the effects of storage time, the RMS values were significantly higher after 1-month storage, p = 0.002; and 3-month storage, p < 0.001, than the ones at the immediate postmanufacturing stage. However, the RMS values after 1-month and 3-month storage were not significantly different from each other (p = 0.169). Conclusions Manufacturing technologies, storage conditions, and storage time significantly affected the trueness and dimensional stability of 3D-printed dies at finish line regions, while finish line designs had no significant effects. Among the AM technologies tested, all have produced either comparable or truer 3D-printed dies than the Type IV dental stone dies, and the CLIP and SLA 3D-printers produced the best outcomes. 3D-printed dies showed significant distortion after 1-month and 3-months storage, especially under light exposure storage conditions. These findings may negate the clinical need to preserve 3D-printed dies, and digital data should be preserved instead.
Effects of shade and thickness on the translucency parameter of anatomic-contour zirconia, transmitted light intensity, and degree of conversion of the resin cement
(Elsevier, 2023-01) Supornpun, Noppamath; Oster, Molly; Phasuk, Kamolphob; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Biomedical Sciences and Comprehensive Care, School of Dentistry
Statement of problem Anatomic-contour zirconia prostheses are usually cemented with resin cement. However, information regarding the effects of the zirconia shade and thicknesses on the translucency of the prosthesis, the intensity of the transmitted light beneath the prosthesis, and the subsequent degree of conversion in the resin cement is sparse. Purpose The purpose of this in vitro study was to investigate the translucency parameter in 3 anatomic-contour zirconia specimens of 2 shades at 5 different thicknesses and to investigate the transmitted light intensity and degree of conversion of the resin cement beneath the ceramic specimens by using a traditional zirconia and a lithium disilicate glass ceramic as controls. Material and methods Ceramic specimens from 1 anatomic-contour zirconia in a generic shade (CAP FZ) and 2 anatomic-contour zirconias in A2 shade (Zirlux and Luxisse) were used. Lithium disilicate in HT A2 shade (IPS e.max CAD) and traditional zirconia in a generic shade (CAP QZ) were used as controls. A total of 125 ceramic specimens (n=25) were fabricated to a final specimen dimension of 12×12 mm and in thicknesses of 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, and 2.0 mm according to the manufacturers’ recommendations. The CIELab color space for all specimens placed against a white and black ground was measured with a spectrophotometer (CM-2600D), and the translucency parameters were calculated for the materials at various thicknesses. A light-polymerizing unit (DEMI LED) was used to polymerize the resin cement (Variolink II) placed beneath the ceramic specimens. Transmitted light intensity from the polymerization unit beneath the ceramic specimens was measured by using a spectrophotometer (MARC Resin Calibrator), and the transmittance of each specimen was calculated. The coefficient of absorption of each material was calculated from the regression analysis between the natural log of transmittance and specimen thickness. The degree of conversion of resin cement was measured by using a Fourier transformation infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometer. The results were analyzed by using 2-way ANOVA (α=.05). The relationship between the transmittance and the translucency parameter was evaluated by plotting the transmittance against the translucency parameter value of each specimen. Results The translucency parameter decreased with increasing thickness in all 5 material groups. All anatomic-contour zirconia had lower translucency parameters than e-max CAD (P<.001). The same results were found for the intensity of the transmitted light (P<.001). Both A2 shade anatomic-contour zirconia (Zirlux and Luxisse) showed significantly lower light transmittance than a generic shade anatomic-contour zirconia (CAP FZ) (P<.001). The coefficients of absorption were found to range from 0.63 to 1.72 mm-1, and reflectance from 0.10 to 0.25. The results from the degree of conversion of resin cement after polymerization through 1 to 2 mm of specimens showed a significantly higher degree of conversion in the e.max group than in all other groups (P<.001). The correlation between translucency parameter and the intensity of the transmitted light suggested that the relationship was shade dependent. Conclusions The translucency parameter and the transmitted light intensity of ceramic material were influenced by the type of ceramic and the shade and thickness of the ceramic. The combined effects of layer thickness and the intensity of the transmitted light in the A2 shade anatomic-contour zirconia (Zirlux and Luxisse) resulted in a lower degree of conversion in resin cement than in a generic shade anatomic-contour zirconia (CAP FZ) at layer thicknesses of 1.75 and 2 mm.
Forces associated with launch into space do not impact bone fracture healing
(Elsevier, 2018-02) Childress, Paul; Brinker, Alexander; Gong, Cynthia-May S.; Harris, Jonathan; Olivos, David J.; Rytlewski, Jeffrey D.; Scofield, David C.; Choi, Sungshin Y.; Shirazi-Fard, Yasaman; McKinley, Todd O.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Conley, Carolynn L.; Chakraborty, Nabarun; Hammamieh, Rasha; Kacena, Melissa A.; Orthopaedic Surgery, School of Medicine
Segmental bone defects (SBDs) secondary to trauma invariably result in a prolonged recovery with an extended period of limited weight bearing on the affected limb. Soldiers sustaining blast injuries and civilians sustaining high energy trauma typify such a clinical scenario. These patients frequently sustain composite injuries with SBDs in concert with extensive soft tissue damage. For soft tissue injury resolution and skeletal reconstruction a patient may experience limited weight bearing for upwards of 6 months. Many small animal investigations have evaluated interventions for SBDs. While providing foundational information regarding the treatment of bone defects, these models do not simulate limited weight bearing conditions after injury. For example, mice ambulate immediately following anesthetic recovery, and in most cases are normally ambulating within 1-3 days post-surgery. Thus, investigations that combine disuse with bone healing may better test novel bone healing strategies. To remove weight bearing, we have designed a SBD rodent healing study in microgravity (µG) on the International Space Station (ISS) for the Rodent Research-4 (RR-4) Mission, which launched February 19, 2017 on SpaceX CRS-10 (Commercial Resupply Services). In preparation for this mission, we conducted an end-to-end mission simulation consisting of surgical infliction of SBD followed by launch simulation and hindlimb unloading (HLU) studies. In brief, a 2 mm defect was created in the femur of 10 week-old C57BL6/J male mice (n = 9-10/group). Three days after surgery, 6 groups of mice were treated as follows: 1) Vivarium Control (maintained continuously in standard cages); 2) Launch Negative Control (placed in the same spaceflight-like hardware as the Launch Positive Control group but were not subjected to launch simulation conditions); 3) Launch Positive Control (placed in spaceflight-like hardware and also subjected to vibration followed by centrifugation); 4) Launch Positive Experimental (identical to Launch Positive Control group, but placed in qualified spaceflight hardware); 5) Hindlimb Unloaded (HLU, were subjected to HLU immediately after launch simulation tests to simulate unloading in spaceflight); and 6) HLU Control (single housed in identical HLU cages but not suspended). Mice were euthanized 28 days after launch simulation and bone healing was examined via micro-Computed Tomography (µCT). These studies demonstrated that the mice post-surgery can tolerate launch conditions. Additionally, forces and vibrations associated with launch did not impact bone healing (p = .3). However, HLU resulted in a 52.5% reduction in total callus volume compared to HLU Controls (p = .0003). Taken together, these findings suggest that mice having a femoral SBD surgery tolerated the vibration and hypergravity associated with launch, and that launch simulation itself did not impact bone healing, but that the prolonged lack of weight bearing associated with HLU did impair bone healing. Based on these findings, we proceeded with testing the efficacy of FDA approved and novel SBD therapies using the unique spaceflight environment as a novel unloading model on SpaceX CRS-10.
A novel approach to evaluate the effect of medicaments used in endodontic regeneration on root canal surface indentation
(The final publication is available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00784-013-1125-x doi: 10.1007/s00784-013-1125-x, 2013-10) Yassen, Ghaeth H.; Chu, Tien-Min G.; Gallant, Maxime A.; Allen, Matthew R.; Vail, Mychel M.; Murray, Peter E.; Platt, Jeffrey A.
Objectives: To investigate the capability of a novel reference point indentation apparatus to test the indentation properties of root canal surface dentine treated with three intracanal medicaments used in endodontic regeneration. Materials and Methods: Immature human premolars were selected (n=22). Four specimens were obtained from each root and randomly assigned to three treatment groups and a control group. Each specimen was exposed to one of three treatment pastes (triple antibiotic (TAP), double antibiotic (DAP), or calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] or neutral de-ionized water (control) for one or four weeks. After each time-interval, the indentation properties of the root canal dentine surfaces were measured using a BioDent reference point indenter. Two-way ANOVA and Fisher’s Protected Least Significant Differences were used for statistical analyses. Results: Significant differences in indentation parameters and estimated hardness between all groups at both time points were found. TAP treated dentine had the highest significant indentation parameters, followed by DAP treated dentine, untreated control dentine and Ca(OH)2 treated dentine, respectively. Furthermore, TAP treated dentine had the lowest significant estimated hardness, followed by DAP treated dentine, untreated control dentine and Ca(OH)2 treated dentine, respectively. Conclusion: BioDent reference point indenter was able to detect significant differences in indentation properties of root canal dentine treated with various medicaments. Clinical Relevance: The use of a reference point indenter is a promising approach to characterize the indentation properties of root canal surfaces without any surface modification. This might provide an in vitro mechanical measurement that is more representative of the actual clinical situation.

Browsing by Author "Chu, Tien-Min G."

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